High retest reliability is desirable in tests used to monitor athletic performance. The purpose of the present study was to determine the reliability of a 30-minute cycle test on a cycle ergometer (Lode, Groningen, Netherlands). Following an incremental VO2max test, 10 highly-trained cyclists (mean ± SD; age = 30 ± 6 years; VO2max = 67.7 ± 2.5 mL.kg-1.min-1) completed three 30-minute cycling tests on a Lode cycle ergometer each separated by more than 48 hours. The cycle test implemented a fixed workload for 15-minutes (set at 70% VO2max power output), followed by a 15-minute time-trial. Variables determined during the test were mean power (Wmean), blood lactate concentration at 15-minutes (BL15), peak blood lactate concentration (BLpeak) and mean heart rate (HRmean). Wmean in trial 1 (312?± 23 W) increased by 0.8% (95% confidence interval: -0.7 to 2.3%) in trial 2 and by a further 0.4% (-0.3 to 1.1%) in trial 3. The typical error of measurement expressed as a coefficient of variation (CV%) for Wmean was 1.3% (1.0 to 1.8%). The CV for BL15 was 10.9% (8.3 to 15.9%), BLpeak; 8.4% (6.5 to 13.0%) and HRmean; 2.4% (1.8 to 3.4%). The average intraclass correlations between trials were Wmean: 0.98 (0.96 to 1.00), BL15: 0.94 (0.85 to 0.98), BLpeak: 0.88 (0.71- 0.97) and HRmean: 0.88 (0.71 to 0.97). A strong correlation existed between VO2max and PPO in the incremental test and Wmean in the 30-minute TT (r = 0.86, 0.93, respectively). The testing protocol performed on a Lode cycle ergometer in the current study is reproducible in highly-trained cyclists, making it a reliable method for monitoring cycling performance.

The foot – pedal interface is the primary site for energy transfer from the cyclist to the bicycle, with anecdotal evidence that foot injuries from cycling are common. However, there is little research regarding the prevalence, aetiology and/or management of such injuries. 1) What is the distribution of age, gender, foot/pedal interface use and distances cycled amongst cyclists who experience foot pain? 2) What type of pain and what region of the foot do cyclists experience pain? 3) What amelioration techniques are used for this cycling foot pain? 4) Are there key groups of cyclists at greater risk of foot pain than others?. Cyclists over 18 years of age riding a non-stationary, upright bicycle at least once a week (minimum of one hour) were invited to participate in an electronic questionnaire. The electronic link to the survey was distributed through three large databases Bike SA, (the peak representative body for South Australian cyclists), Mega Bike (a large bicycle shop in Adelaide) and staff and students of the School of Health Sciences at the University of South Australia. The survey asked about cycling participation, pedal interface and foot pain. The survey was returned by 397 participants (93.9% responses eligible for analysis). Foot pain was reported by 53.9% respondents. The forefoot, inclusive of the toenails, toes and ball of the foot, was the highest reported region of foot pain (61%). The pain was described as ‘burning’ and ‘numbness’. ‘Stopping’ for a period of time during the cycle and ‘removing their shoes’, ‘walking around’, ‘massaging’ and ‘stretching’ the foot was the most commonly reported amelioration technique. The group of cyclists at greatest risk of experiencing foot pain are those who ride with an attached (cleated-in, strap, cage) foot-pedal interface. This paper found a high frequency of foot pain in cyclists (53.9% of cohort). The pain was overwhelmingly described as ‘burning’ and ‘numbness’ with the forefoot region most implicated. ‘Stopping’ for a period of time during the cycle and ‘removing their shoes’, ‘walking around’, ‘massaging’ and ‘stretching’ the foot was the most commonly reported amelioration technique. The group of cyclists who are at the greatest risk of experiencing foot pain are those who ride with an attached foot-pedal interface (2.6 odds ratio); followed by the combination of those who use an attached foot-pedal interface and who are 26 years of age or older (2.2 odds ratio). Our study highlights the importance of addressing the current knowledge gap regarding foot pain and cycling and the need to investigate effective interventions for this problem.

Editorial: Cycling performance: What is it and how big is it?

Triathlon, in particular the ‘Ironman’ distance, has become very popular in the field of ultra-endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to analyse the participation and performances at the ‘Ironman Switzerland’ in Zurich, Switzerland, regarding the nationality of the participants. Nationalities and performances of 21,399 athletes, originating from exactly 100 countries and competing between 1995 and 2011, were analysed. The mean total race times and changes across the years of the top ten athletes overall and of each country for both women and men triathletes were analysed using linear regression analyses. In total, 90% of the participants in ‘Ironman Switzerland’ originated from European countries, with triathletes from Switzerland (31.9%) and Germany (18.9%) presenting the majority, followed by participants from Great Britain (11.2%), France (7.9%), Italy (5.3%), USA (4.7%), Spain (3.5%), Belgium (2.7%) and Austria (2.6%). Switzerland presented the fastest triathletes in both sexes followed by athletes from Germany. Behind these two leading nations, triathletes from countries such as France, Belgium, Austria, Great Britain, Spain, Italy and USA competed slower. To summarize, ‘Ironman Switzerland’ has been dominated by central European triathletes regarding participation and performance. Most of the participants and the fastest finishers came from Switzerland, followed by triathletes from Germany. To assess these results, future studies need to investigate the leading nations in ‘Ironman’ qualifying races all over the world for ‘Ironman Hawaii’ and in the ‘Ironman World Championship’ in Hawaii.

The crank torque represents the kinetics of the propulsive torque within the crank cycle. These kinetics are one of the important determinants of cycling performance. At our knowledge, works in literature concerning the pedaling pattern of master cyclist is lacking although this group of cyclists concerns the majority of practitioners. The purpose of this experimentation is to study the biomechanics of cycling in masters cyclists during an incremental test. Eleven trained masters cyclists (53.5 ± 4.1 years) have participated at this study. The results indicate that the master cyclists have a significant asymmetry (30 ± 8 to 23 ± 13 %) during the pedaling exercise at all power output level tested in this study (100, 150, 200 and 250 W). The present preliminary study suggests that the pedaling pattern asymmetry observed in the master cyclists should be taken into account to prevent knee or muscle overuse injuries.

This study aimed to investigate upper body muscle activity using surface electromyography (sEMG) in elite cross-country (XCO) and downhill (DH) cyclists during off road descending and the influence of man-made (MM) and natural terrain (NT) descents on muscle activity. Twelve male elite mountain bikers (n=6 XCO; age 23 ± 4 yrs; stature 180.5 ± 5.6 cm; body mass 70.0 ± 6.4 kg and n=6 DH; age 20 ± 2 yrs; stature 178.8 ± 3.1 cm; body mass 75.0 ± 3.0 kg) took part in this study. sEMG were recorded from the left biceps brachii, triceps brachii, latissimus dorsi and brachioradialis muscles and expressed as a percentage of maximal voluntary isometric contraction (% MVIC). Both groups performed single runs on different MM and NT courses specific to their cycling modality. Significant differences in mean % MVIC were found between biceps brachii and triceps brachii (p=.016) and triceps brachii and latissimus dorsi (p=.046) during MM descents and between biceps brachii and triceps brachii (p=.008) and triceps brachii and latissimus dorsi (p=.031) during NT descents within the DH group. Significant differences in mean % MVIC were found between biceps brachii and brachioradialis (p=.022) for MM runs and between biceps brachii and brachioradialis (p=.013) for NT runs within the XCO group. Upper body muscle activity differs according to the type of downhill terrain, and appears to be specific to DH and XCO riders. Therefore, the discipline specific impact on muscle activation and the type of course terrain ridden should be considered when mountain bikers engage in upper body conditioning programmes.

The purpose of this study was to determine whether the frequency of power output alternation during cycling affects subsequent running performance. Eleven male triathletes completed a graded cycle test to determine peak oxygen uptake and the corresponding power at 35% delta. Two performance tests were then conducted, each comprising of a thirty minute cycling protocol followed by a 5 km free pace run. Mean cycling power was equal for both trials (35% delta), however the frequency of power alternations differed. In one trial cycling power output alternated every five minutes, whereas in the other trial cycling power output alternated every one minute. Power was set to alternate 15% above and below the 35% delta value. No significant difference was found between trials for the subsequent 5 km running performance time (P = .63). A significant difference was observed for overall mean heart rate between cycle trials (P = .045), however no significant difference was observed for overall mean oxygen uptake, minute ventilation, respiratory exchange ratio, blood lactate, rating of perceived exertion or pedal cadence (P > 0.05). When data was divided into 5 minute epoch stages rating of perceived exertion was significantly different between cycle trials at epochs three (minutes 10-15; P = .046) and five (minutes 20-25; P less than 0.001). We conclude that when power is alternated equally during cycling, the frequency of power change (maximum of five minutes, minimum of one minute) does not affect subsequent running performance.